By

Muhammad M. Rashid

University of Detroit Mercy, USA.

e-ISBN: 978-625-8190-87-8
DOI: 10.65810/e-978-625-8190-87-8
Publishing Date: September 20, 2026
File Size: 3,212 MB ‎
Length: ix + 113 pages (PDF)
Language: ‎ English
Dimensions: ‎13,5 x 21,5 cm

This Book is completely open access. You can freely read, download and share with everyone.

The method of science or reflective inquiry is a method devoid of personal aspirations and commitments; the method nurtures doubt and uncertainty and relies on the best of evidence to test, accept, modify, or reject the probable validity of a hypothesis and thus forming beliefs. Cohen and Nagel in their book assert that the scientific method proves to be the best method, as it addresses the faults existing in the method of tenacity, authority, and intuition, while providing for further advantages. In my response I will argue to defend the conclusion that indeed the method of scientific or reflective inquiry is the best method. Since the method engages us to question and doubt, we are continuously involved in the process of finding and applying to evidence to strengthen the validity of our hypothesis. It follows then this process of continuous improvement makes sure that our hypothesis does not become stagnant and reduces the margin of error. Furthermore, since the method does not involve personal aspirations, commitments and relies on the best evidence; hence, the method is entirely result based and unbiased.

Constant nurturing of doubt and reflection to strengthen our hypothesis requires that we do not invest a position of infallibility in our sources of authority. Therefore, the result is entirely based on evidence and the differing position and bias of authoritative figures and written material is not considered while measuring the validity of the hypothesis and there arises stable belief.  Science provides holders of different beliefs and position a common ground to decide a validity of a hypothesis through the availability of evidence alone. This common ground of validating the hypothesis through evidence alone, enables us to overcome the problem of difference in the method of authority. Tenacity imposes on us a conservative position where we are reluctant to change our beliefs in face of new evidence. Science enables us to overcome this problem by nurturing doubt and repeatedly questioning our beliefs through evidence. Intuition imposes on us the problem that a statement seems self-evident to one because of their disposition, trends and training. Science tells us that only the best of evidence is required to establish the validity of a hypothesis and that personal dispositions, trends and do not matter.

1.

Unity of the Quran – The Surah Star

1

2.

A Response to Cohen and Nagel Fixing Belief

4

3.

Gettier Case Chrysler in a Car Show Modified to Look Like a Bentley

 

7

4.

Gettier Case. X & Y are in a race

13

5.

Exploitation and Care Ethics in Global Surrogacy

 

18

6.

Arguing Against the Permissibility of After Birth Abortion

 

22

7.

Gary Varner A Hierarchy of Values

27

8.

Harmans Relativism

33

9.

Hercules, Fuller and Dworkin Revisited

37

10.

Moral Realism, Ethical Naturalism and Non-Naturalism

 

41

11.

Commonalities and differences in a morally defensible good life as provided for by, Aristotle, Plato, and Thomas Hobbes

 

 

46

12.

Exposition and analysis of destiny, free agency, freedom of choice and action in J.K Rowling’s Harry Potter

 

 

51

13.

How Politics has Influenced the US Criminal Justice System

 

56

14.

Federalist 51

59

15.

Plato’s Allegory of the Cave

63

16.

The Externalist Challenge

67

17.

The Welfarist and the Egalitarian

71

18.

Rights and Normative Ethics

74

19.

Harmless Wrongs

78

20.

Love as a Moral Emotion

84

21.

Skepticism; Academics and Pyrrhonist on the Criteria of Truth

 

88

22.

Epicurus and the Significance of the Study of Nature

 

91

23.

Epicurus on the Nature of Gods

94

24.

Challenges to metaphysical reality, identity, and self-understanding; in J.K Rowling’s Harry Potter

 

 

101

25.

Response to Maryy

106

 

Conclusions

109

 

References

111

 

Muhammad M. Rashid

University of Detroit Mercy, USA.

Muhammad Mustafa Rashid hold a MBA, a Masters of Arts in Economics and an undergraduate degree in Philosophy. Muhammad M Rashid has held research positions with University of California, and University of Detroit Mercy. Muhammad M Rashid’s upbringing was in Pakistan where he attended St. Patrick’s High School and Foundation Public School and passed his Cambridge Ordinary Level and Advanced Level Examination. Furthermore, Muhammad Mustafa Rashid has attended courses at Harvard University.


M.M. Rashid’s Book(s)
- Essays in Economics: Macroeconomic analyzes and perspectives of economic thought Vol.1

- Essays in Economics: Macroeconomic analyzes and perspectives of economic thought Vol.2

"

Integration or Divergence? Bulgarian Agriculture in a Global Context is a comprehensive study that fills a significant gap in the literature on global agricultural economics by positioning Bulgaria within the global context. While Bulgarian agriculture has often been analyzed through the lens of transition and EU integration, this book offers a systematic comparative analysis across all world regions. The dissertation addresses one of the most topical and simultaneously debated yet underexplored issues in agrarian theory and practice—global regional agricultural development in historical, current, and prospective dimensions. In Bulgaria, comprehensive assessments and classifications of Bulgarian agriculture within the framework of global regional development over the past 50 years are practically absent. Internationally, there are few such extensive studies applying diverse approaches and indicators across different periods, regions, and countries."

By Prof. Dr. Hrabrin Bachev

Click here to read the full book review.

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